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References

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  1. Besley, T. (1995). Property rights and investment incentives: Theory and evidence from Ghana. Journal of Political Economy, 103(5), 903–937. https://doi.org/10.1086/262008
  2. Bhanye, J., Shayamunda, R. H., Mpahlo, R. I., Matamanda, A., & Kachena, L. (2023). Land politics and settlers’ responses to land tenure under threat in emerging peri-urban spaces in Zimbabwe. Land Use Policy, 135, 106945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106945
  3. Linkow, B. (2016). Causes and consequences of perceived land tenure insecurity: Survey evidence from Burkina Faso. Land Economics, 92(2), 308–327. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.92.2.308
  4. Byamugisha, F. (2021). Experiences and development impacts of securing land rights at scale: Lessons and guidance from China and Vietnam. Land, 10(2), 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020176
  5. Davies, A. (2004). Restitution of land and property rights. Forced Migration Review, 21.
  6. Deininger, K. (2003). Land policies for growth and poverty reduction. World Bank and Oxford University Press.
  7. Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5
  8. FAO. (2002). Land tenure and rural development (FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
  9. Feder, G., & Nishio, A. (1998). The benefits of land registration and titling: Economic and social perspectives. Land Use Policy, 15(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(97)00039-2
  10. Field, E. (2005). Property rights and investment in urban slums. Journal of the European Economic Association, 3(2–3), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2005.3.2-3.279
  11. Global Land Tool Network, International Federation of Surveyors, & UN-Habitat. (2013). Social tenure domain model (STDM): A pro-poor land tool. GLTN/FIG/UN-Habitat.
  12. Harild, N., Christensen, A., & Zetter, R. (2015). Sustainable refugee return: Triggers, constraints, and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement (Global Program on Forced Displacement Issue Note). World Bank Group.
  13. Human Rights Watch. (2023, May 9). Iraq: Compensation for ISIS victims too little, too late. Human Rights Watch.
  14. Lawry, S., Samii, C., Hall, R., Leopold, A., Hornby, D., & Mtero, F. (2017). The impact of land property rights interventions on investment and agricultural productivity in developing countries: A systematic review. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 9(1), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2016.1160947
  15. Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA.
  16. Palestinian National Consensus Government. (2014). National early recovery and reconstruction plan for Gaza.
  17. Payne, G., Durand-Lasserve, A., & Rakodi, C. (2009). The limits of land titling and home ownership. Environment and Urbanization, 21(2), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809344364
  18. Republic of Liberia. (2018). Land Rights Act (Land Rights Law of 2018).
  19. Rubio-Marín, R., & de Greiff, P. (2007). Women and reparations. International Journal of Transitional Justice, 1(3), 318–337. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm035
  20. Stubblefield, E., & Joireman, S. F. (2019). Law, violence, and property expropriation in Syria: Impediments to restitution and return. Land, 8(11), 173. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/8/11/173
  21. Tseng, T.-W. J., Robinson, B. E., Bellemare, M. F., et al. (2021). Influence of land tenure interventions on human well-being and environmental outcomes. Nature Sustainability, 4, 242–251. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00648-5
  22. UN-Habitat. (2024). Land governance and land rights in Palestine: Analysis and recommendations. Arab Land Initiative / UN-Habitat.
  23. UNDP. (2024, May). Expected socio-economic impacts of the war in Gaza on the State of Palestine. United Nations Development Programme.
  24. United Nations Iraq. (2021). Leave no one behind: Land tenure in post-conflict Iraq.
  25. United Nations. (2014, October 9). Gaza Reconstruction Mechanism (GRM) fact sheet. Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process (UNSCO).
  26. Unruh, J. D., & Williams, R. C. (Eds.). (2013). Land and post-conflict peacebuilding. Routledge.
  27. World Bank, European Union, & United Nations. (2025, February). Gaza and West Bank interim rapid damage and needs assessment (IRDNA).
  28. Yngström, I. (2002). Women, wives and land rights in Africa: Situating gender beyond the household in the debate over land policy and changing tenure systems. Oxford Development Studies, 30(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/136008101200114886
  29. Enemark, S., Bell, K. C., Lemmen, C., & McLaren, R. (2014). Fit-for-Purpose Land Administration. FIG Publication No. 60. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) & World Bank.
  30. Enshassi, A., Chatat, T., von Meding, J., et al. (2017). Factors Influencing Post-disaster Reconstruction Project Management for Housing Provision in the Gaza Strip, Occupied Palestinian Territories. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 8(4), 402–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-017-0155-4
  31. Forman, G., & Kedar, A. (2004). From Arab Land to ‘Israel Lands’: The Legal Dispossession of the Palestinians Displaced by Israel in the Wake of 1948. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 22(6), 809–830. https://doi.org/10.1068/d402
  32. Hammad, J., & Tribe, R. (2020). Social suffering and the psychological impact of structural violence and economic oppression in an ongoing conflict setting: The Gaza Strip. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(6), 1791–1810. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22367
  33. Holail, S., Saleh, T., Xiao, X., et al. (2024). Time-series satellite remote sensing reveals gradually increasing war damage in the Gaza Strip. National Science Review, 11(9), nwae304. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae304
  34. Kreimer, A., Eriksson, J., Muscat, R., Arnold, M., & Scott, C. (1998). The World Bank’s Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  35. McKay, B. M. (2018). Democratising land control: Towards rights, reform and restitution in post-conflict Colombia. Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue canadienne d'études du développement, 39(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2017.1364621
  36. Singirankabo, U. A., & Ertsen, M. W. (2020). Relations between land tenure security and agricultural productivity: Exploring the effect of land registration. Land, 9(5), 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9050138
  37. Unruh, J. D. (2009). Land rights in postwar Liberia: The volatile part of the peace process. Land Use Policy, 26(2), 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.05.005
  38. Van Hoyweghen, S. (1999). The urgency of land and agrarian reform in Rwanda. African Affairs, 98(392), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008044

Endnotes

1 UNDP. (2024, May). Expected socio-economic impacts of the war in Gaza on the State of Palestine. United Nations Development Programme; Hammad, J., & Tribe, R. (2020). Social suffering and the psychological impact of structural violence and economic oppression in an ongoing conflict setting: The Gaza Strip. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(6), 1791–1810. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22367

2 World Bank, European Union, & United Nations. (2025, February). Gaza and West Bank interim rapid damage and needs assessment (IRDNA); Holail, S., Saleh, T., Xiao, X., et al. (2024). Time-series satellite remote sensing reveals gradually increasing war damage in the Gaza Strip. National Science Review, 11(9), nwae304. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae304

3 FAO. (2002). Land tenure and rural development (FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5

4 Besley, T. (1995). Property rights and investment incentives: Theory and evidence from Ghana. Journal of Political Economy, 103(5), 903–937. https://doi.org/10.1086/262008

5 Field, E. (2005). Property rights and investment in urban slums. Journal of the European Economic Association, 3(2–3), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2005.3.2-3.279

6 Feder, G., & Nishio, A. (1998). The benefits of land registration and titling: Economic and social perspectives. Land Use Policy, 15(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(97)00039-2

7 Deininger, K. (2003). Land policies for growth and poverty reduction. World Bank and Oxford University Press.

8 Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5

9 FAO. (2002). Land tenure and rural development (FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5

10 Bhanye, J., Shayamunda, R. H., Mpahlo, R. I., Matamanda, A., & Kachena, L. (2023). Land politics and settlers’ responses to land tenure under threat in emerging peri-urban spaces in Zimbabwe. Land Use Policy, 135, 106945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106945

11 Linkow, B. (2016). Causes and consequences of perceived land tenure insecurity: Survey evidence from Burkina Faso. Land Economics, 92(2), 308–327. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.92.2.308

12 Tseng, T.-W. J., Robinson, B. E., Bellemare, M. F., et al. (2021). Influence of land tenure interventions on human well-being and environmental outcomes. Nature Sustainability, 4, 242–251. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00648-5.

13 Lawry, S., Samii, C., Hall, R., Leopold, A., Hornby, D., & Mtero, F. (2017). The impact of land property rights interventions on investment and agricultural productivity in developing countries: A systematic review. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 9(1), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2016.1160947; Singirankabo, U. A., & Ertsen, M. W. (2020). Relations between land tenure security and agricultural productivity: Exploring the effect of land registration. Land, 9(5), 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9050138

14 UN-Habitat. (2024). Land governance and land rights in Palestine: Analysis and recommendations. Arab Land Initiative / UN-Habitat; Forman, G., & Kedar, A. (2004). From Arab Land to ‘Israel Lands’: The Legal Dispossession of the Palestinians Displaced by Israel in the Wake of 1948. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 22(6), 809–830. https://doi.org/10.1068/d402

15 Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA.

16 Enemark, Stig; Bell, Keith Clifford; Lemmen, Christiaan; & McLaren, Robin. (2014). Fit-For-Purpose Land Administration. FIG Publication No. 60. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) & World Bank, Copenhagen. (ISBN 978-87-92853-11-0).

17 Unruh, J. D., & Williams, R. C. (Eds.). (2013). Land and post-conflict peacebuilding. Routledge.

18 Byamugisha, F. (2021). Experiences and development impacts of securing land rights at scale: Lessons and guidance from China and Vietnam. Land, 10(2), 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020176

19 Payne, G., Durand-Lasserve, A., & Rakodi, C. (2009). The limits of land titling and home ownership. Environment and Urbanization, 21(2), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809344364

20 Rubio-Marín, R., & de Greiff, P. (2007). Women and reparations. International Journal of Transitional Justice, 1(3), 318–337. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm035

21 Yngström, I. (2002). Women, wives and land rights in Africa: Situating gender beyond the household in the debate over land policy and changing tenure systems. Oxford Development Studies, 30(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/136008101200114886

22 World Bank, European Union, & United Nations. (2025, February). Gaza and West Bank interim rapid damage and needs assessment (IRDNA).

23 Palestinian National Consensus Government. (2014). National early recovery and reconstruction plan for Gaza.

24 United Nations. (2014, October 9). Gaza Reconstruction Mechanism (GRM) fact sheet. Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process (UNSCO); Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA; Enshassi, A., Chatat, T., von Meding, J., et al. (2017). Factors Influencing Post-disaster Reconstruction Project Management for Housing Provision in the Gaza Strip, Occupied Palestinian Territories. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 8(4), 402–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-017-0155-4

25 Stubblefield, E., & Joireman, S. F. (2019). Law, violence, and property expropriation in Syria: Impediments to restitution and return. Land, 8(11), 173. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/8/11/173

26 Davies, A. (2004). Restitution of land and property rights. Forced Migration Review, 21; Harild, N., Christensen, A., & Zetter, R. (2015). Sustainable refugee return: Triggers, constraints, and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement (Global Program on Forced Displacement Issue Note). World Bank Group; Kreimer, A., Eriksson, J., Muscat, R., Arnold, M., & Scott, C. (1998). The World Bank’s Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction. Washington, DC: World Bank.

27 Human Rights Watch. (2023, May 9). Iraq: Compensation for ISIS victims too little, too late. Human Rights Watch.

28 Stubblefield, E., & Joireman, S. F. (2019). Law, violence, and property expropriation in Syria: Impediments to restitution and return. Land, 8(11), 173. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/8/11/173

29 UN-Habitat. (2024). Land governance and land rights in Palestine: Analysis and recommendations. Arab Land Initiative / UN-Habitat; Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA.

30 FAO. (2002). Land tenure and rural development (FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5

31 Durand-Lasserve, A., & Selod, H. (2009). The formalization of urban land tenure in developing countries. In S. V. Lall, M. Freire, B. Yuen, R. Rajack, & J.-J. Helluin (Eds.), Urban land markets: Improving land management for successful urbanization. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8862-9_5; FAO. (2002). Land tenure and rural development (FAO Land Tenure Studies No. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

32 Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA.

33 United Nations. (2014, October 9). Gaza Reconstruction Mechanism (GRM) fact sheet. Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process (UNSCO).

34 Harild, N., Christensen, A., & Zetter, R. (2015). Sustainable refugee return: Triggers, constraints, and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement (Global Program on Forced Displacement Issue Note). World Bank Group.

35 Davies, A. (2004). Restitution of land and property rights. Forced Migration Review, 21.

36 United Nations Iraq. (2021). Leave no one behind: Land tenure in post-conflict Iraq.

37 Global Land Tool Network, International Federation of Surveyors, & UN-Habitat. (2013). Social tenure domain model (STDM): A pro-poor land tool. GLTN/FIG/UN-Habitat.

38 Human Rights Watch. (2023, May 9). Iraq: Compensation for ISIS victims too little, too late. Human Rights Watch.

39 Rubio-Marín, R., & de Greiff, P. (2007). Women and reparations. International Journal of Transitional Justice, 1(3), 318–337. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm035

40 Yngström, I. (2002). Women, wives and land rights in Africa: Situating gender beyond the household in the debate over land policy and changing tenure systems. Oxford Development Studies, 30(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/136008101200114886

41 Stubblefield, E., & Joireman, S. F. (2019). Law, violence, and property expropriation in Syria: Impediments to restitution and return. Land, 8(11), 173. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/8/11/173; McKay, B. M. (2018). Democratising land control: Towards rights, reform and restitution in post-conflict Colombia. Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue canadienne d'études du développement, 39(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2017.1364621

42 Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). A guide to housing, land and property law in the Gaza Strip. Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) / ICLA; Human Rights Watch. (2023, May 9). Iraq: Compensation for ISIS victims too little, too late. Human Rights Watch; Van Hoyweghen, S. (1999). The urgency of land and agrarian reform in Rwanda. African Affairs, 98(392), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008044

43 United Nations Iraq. (2021). Leave no one behind: Land tenure in post-conflict Iraq; Unruh, J. D. (2009). Land rights in postwar Liberia: The volatile part of the peace process. Land Use Policy, 26(2), 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.05.005

44 World Bank, European Union, & United Nations. (2025, February). Gaza and West Bank interim rapid damage and needs assessment (IRDNA).

45 World Bank, European Union, & United Nations. (2025, February). Gaza and West Bank interim rapid damage and needs assessment (IRDNA).

46 Davies, A. (2004). Restitution of land and property rights. Forced Migration Review, 21; Harild, N., Christensen, A., & Zetter, R. (2015). Sustainable refugee return: Triggers, constraints, and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement (Global Program on Forced Displacement Issue Note). World Bank Group; Kreimer, A., Eriksson, J., Muscat, R., Arnold, M., & Scott, C. (1998). The World Bank’s Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction. Washington, DC: World Bank.

47 Global Land Tool Network, International Federation of Surveyors, & UN-Habitat. (2013). Social tenure domain model (STDM): A pro-poor land tool. GLTN/FIG/UN-Habitat; United Nations Iraq. (2021). Leave no one behind: Land tenure in post-conflict Iraq.

48 Byamugisha, F. (2021). Experiences and development impacts of securing land rights at scale: Lessons and guidance from China and Vietnam. Land, 10(2), 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020176 ; Enemark, S., Bell, K. C., Lemmen, C., & McLaren, R. (2014). Fit-for-Purpose Land Administration. FIG Publication No. 60. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) & World Bank.

49 Payne, G., Durand-Lasserve, A., & Rakodi, C. (2009). The limits of land titling and home ownership. Environment and Urbanization, 21(2), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809344364